Elder Abuse Essay

The Seriousness of Elder Abuse in Hong Kong Families To let older adults enjoy a sense of security and a sense of belonging is a time-honoured tradition in the Chinese society. Unfortunately, elder abuse has risen as a serious social problem in Hong Kong. An organization called â€Å"The Against Elderly Abuse of Hong Kong† has received 2212 requests for assistance related to elder abuse in 2011, which has doubled the number of requests received in 2006 (â€Å"Cases of elder abuse,† 2012). Besides, several pieces of news about elder abuse in Hong Kong families have been reported, for example, a 90-year old woman was forced to leave home by her unfilial son and daughter-in-law (Li, 2012). To analyze, the main root causes of elder abuse can be induced to the stress of family caregivers due to the dependence of the elderly as well as the financial dependence of family caregivers on the elderly. In addition to physical and psychological injury, the abused elder people have a higher mortality rate than those not being abused. T o ease the elder abuse problem, enhancement of the capacity of elder care services and education on the public about elder abuse have been suggested by the experts. First and foremost, according to the National Research Council (2003), the definition of elder abuse is defined as â€Å"Intentional actions that cause harm or create a serious risk of harm (whether or not harm is intended) to a vulnerable elder by a caregiver or other person who stands in a trusting relationship to the elder or failure by a caregiver to satisfy the elder’s basic needs or to protect the elder from harm† (p. 40). There are 5 categories of elder abuse, including physical, psychological, financial, sexual, and neglect (Harris, 2006). Physical abuse, psychological abuse, and financial abuse are what this essay will emphasize on. To start with, studying the causes of elder abuse is essential. Among many risk factors of elder abuse, stress of family caregivers due to the  dependence of the elderly is one of the  main root causes of elder abuse. As the body functions of the elder people are declining, the elderly, especially those suffering from Dementia, may behave like children who depend on the family caregivers in physical, financial and emotional aspects, resulting in exerting a great pressure to the responsible family caregivers (Pillemer, 1989). A study conducted by Lachs, Williams, O’Brien, Hurst, and Horwitz (1997) discovered that the elder people who have impairments in daily physical activities, such as cooking, and need to be taken care of by family caregivers have double chance of being abused than those without impairments. Once the stress on the family caregivers exceeds what they can withstand, elder abuse will probably occur. Apart from the stress of family caregivers due to the dependence of the elderly, family caregivers depending on the elderly financially is another common cause of the elder abuse. A study conducted by Pillemer (1985) found that â€Å"64% of the abusers in his sample were financially dependent on their victims, and 55% were dependent for housing† (p. 152). The same phenomenon can be applied to Hong Kong. As the price of flats in Hong Kong is very high, many Hong Kong citizens cannot afford it. However, some adults still want to have their own flat. Therefore, some of them will force their old parents to pay for them. In some serious cases, an adult son defrauds the money or the ownership of the flat of their old parents by inveigling them to sign the money withdrawal banking slip or the contract of the change of the ownership of their flat (Lee, 2011). Moreover, due to the underreported crime nature of the financial abuse on the elderly and family caregivers accounting for 60% to 90% of the abusers, financial exploitation on the elder people by family caregivers has become a serious social problem which is difficult to be discovered (Blackburn & Dulmus, 2007). After realizing the causes, understanding the impact of the elder abuse is also significant. The elder people being abused would suffer from both physical and psychological injuries which  lead to a higher mortality rate. According to a study in America, 40% of the non-abused elderly group were still living after a nine-year experimental period; however, only 9% of the abused elderly were still alive (Wolf, 2000). The reasons behind are due to the physical injury, such as cuts, burns, and fractures, caused by infliction of physical violence on the elderly; as well as psychological injury, such as depression, fear and anxiety, generated by verbal aggression and insulting action on the elderly (Blackburn & Dulmus, 2007; Yan & Tang, 2004). Some elder people suffering from abuse would commit suicide so as to avoid being abused continually (Blackburn & Dulmus, 2007). After understanding the root causes and the impact of elder abuse, some solutions are suggested by the experts and related organizations to ease the problem. Enhancement of the quantity of elderly services could help relieve the family caregiver stress by increasing the capacity of the Day Care Centers and Home Care Services for the elderly. However, the current quota of elder care services is seriously inadequate. According to the press release of the Hong Kong Council of Social Services (2011), there are 26,776 elder people on the waiting list of elder care centers and the average waiting time is 3 years, resulting in lots of elder people on the waiting list die before they can get a ticket to the center. Therefore, by increasing the quota of elderly services, family members can transfer the elderly to Day Care Centers if family members are not convenient to do so, for example, working in day  time. In addition, by doing so, the family caregivers can spare time to have their social and outdoor activities to relieve their stress (Chow, 1999). Moreover, home care services, such as personal care helpers or general household helpers, can also reduce the workload and stress of the family caregivers. However, on the other hand, it may perhaps lead to elder abuse by the staff or nurses in the service centers. There are some news reports about the elder abuse by staff of elder care centers; for example, a 65-year old woman  suffering from Alzheimer’s disease was forced to eat her own faeces by a management staff of a home care center for the aged (Man, 2009). Despite the few reported cases, it cannot conclude that the quality of staff in the services units for the elderly is declining. In most cases, it is safe for the elder people to live in the elder care centers. . Besides increasing the quota of elderly services, detection of elder abuse is also important. As the elder abuse cases are underreported, it is crucial to find them out so as to avoid the elderly suffering from abuse continually. Health visitors who have been trained to identify the suspected abuse cases can be introduced to visit the elder people regularly, observe the elderly to see whether he or she has been abused, and report suspected abuse cases to the Social Welfare Department (Roe, 2002; Strasser & Fulmer, 2007). Ultimately, educating the public about the official definitions and consequences of different kinds of elder abuse is a long term measure to ease the elder abuse problem as it can reduce the misunderstanding of elder abuse and raise the public awareness towards the problem (Chan, Chun, & Chung, 2008). According to the Political Declaration and Madrid International Plan of Action on Aging (2003) of the United Nations, one of  the objectives of policy change is stated as â€Å"†¦ encouraging health and social services professionals, and the general public, to report suspected elder abuse; including training on elder abuse for the caring professionals; and establishing information programs to educate older persons about financial abuse, including fraud† (p. 5). This policy reflects that educating the public and the elderly to detect and prevent elder abuse is an effective measure (Blackburn & Dulmus, 2007). Organizing exhibitions in shopping malls, holding seminars in comm unity halls, and making advertisements on television are the measures that can be considered by the Hong Kong government in order to educate the public about the seriousness of elder abuse. Despite low efficiency and time consuming, in long-term, educating the public to help report the  suspected cases of elder abuse can deter the abusers from hurting the elder people. It can be seen from the above that elder abuse is a serious social problem with low public awareness. It leads to many harmful consequences to the elder people who, however, usually hide the case to protect the abuser who may be their family member (Blackburn & Dulmus, 2007). To tackle the problem, enhancing the capacity of elder care services, introducing health care visitors, and educating the public about elder abuse could be the possible solutions. Despite some weaknesses of the solutions, they can boost the public awareness after all. If more citizens in Hong Kong realize the impact of elder abuse, less elder people will be abused and the problem of elder abuse can be relieved. The elder people in Hong Kong can really enjoy a sense of security and a sense of belonging. References Blackburn, J. A., Dulmus, C. N. (2007). Handbook of gerontology – Evidence-based approaches to theory, practice, and policy. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Cases of elder abuse rises significantly – Organizations urge for legislation of elder abuse as criminal charge. (2012, June 11). Ming Pao, p. A14. Retrieved from http://wisenews.wisers.net/ Chan, Y. C., Chun, P. K., & Chung, K. W. (2008). Public perception and reporting of different kinds of family abuse in Hong Kong. Journal of Family Violence, 23, 253–263. doi: 10.1007/s10896-007-9149-0 Chow, T. (1999). What can We do about elder abuse? Policy Watch, 3(7), 14–20. Harris, G. (2006). Domestic violence and abuse: Elder abuse. Practice Nurse, 31(8), 59–70. Lachs, M. S., Williams, C., O’Brien, S., Hurst, L., & Horwitz, R. (1997). Risk factors for reported elder abuse and neglect: A nine-year observational cohort study. The Gerontologist, 37, 469–474. Lee, S. (2011, June 13). Financial abuse of aged surges. The Standard, Local, p.11. Retrieved from http://wisenews.wisers.net/ Li, O. K. (2012, May 17). Unfilial son and daughter in law force 90-year old mother away from home. Hong Kong Economic Times, p. A24. Retrieved from http://wisenews.wisers.net/ Man, J. (2009, December 8). Carer at home for elderly forced woman to eat faeces, court told. South China Morning Post, p. C3. Retrieved from http://wisenews.wisers.net/ National Research Council. (2003). Elder mistreatment: Abuse, neglect, and exploitation in an aging America. Panel to Review Risk and Prevalence of Elder Abuse and Neglect. In R. J. Bonnie & R. B. Wallace (Eds.), Committee on National Statistics and Committee on Law and Justice, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Pillemer, K. (1985). The dangers of dependency: New findings on domestic violence against the elderly. Social Problems, 33(2), 146–158. Pillemer, K., & Finkelhor, D. (1989). Causes of elder abuse: Caregiver stress versus problem relatives. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59(2), 179–187. doi: 10.1111/j.1939-0025.1989.tb01649.x Roe, B. (2002). Protecting older people from abuse. Nursing Older People, 14(9), 14–18. Retrieved from http://nursingolderpeople.rcnpublishing.co.uk/archive/article-protecting-older-peoplefrom-abuse. Strasser, S. M., & Fulmer, T. (2007). The clinical presentation of elder neglect: What we know and what we can do. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 12(6), 340–349. doi: 10.1177/1078390306298879 United Nations. (2003). Political declaration and Madrid International Plan of Action on Aging (DPI/2271—February 2003-20M). New York: United Nations Department of Public Information. The Hong Kong Council of Social Service. (2011, March). Use the hundred billion reserves well – Take the long term responsibility [Press release]. Retrieved from http://2011.hkcss.org.hk/channel/detail.asp?issueID=95 Wolf, R. S. (2000). The nature and scope of elder abuse. Generations, 24(2), 6–12. Yan, C. W., & Tang, S. K. (2004). Elder abuse by caregivers: A study of prevalence and risk factors in Hong Kong Chinese families. Journal of Family Violence, 19(5), 269–277.

The best student cities in the world

The best student cities in the world Top 10 student cities It is very important for every entrant to observe the city while applying to the university. You should pay attention on its friendliness, arts and culture, nightlife, affordability, employment opportunities, and diversity. Think whether you could stay in this city after graduating for making your career. The student survey has shown that there are many other cities not including the most iconic ones, such as Paris or London, which suggest the perfect educational conditions and make the student life interesting and diverse. We decided to write a list of the best student cities in 2017, according to students’ opinion. Hope it will be interesting. Shanghai Shanghai is a megalopolis, which attracts the students from all over the world due to its culture, arts, friendliness and nightlife. It gives the opportunity to meet people from different backgrounds and experience such international influence. It is the largest city in China. However, it is very easy to get around it. You will definitely praise its local cuisine. Nottingham The student survey shows that Nottingham is considered to be a student-focused college-town, which attracts the youth with its nightlife, culture, green spaces, arts, and friendliness. It is also easy to get around it. Nottingham is high scored for inclusion and tolerance. Kyoto-Osaka-Kobe (Keihanshin) Here you can definitely experience a modern student lifestyle. This metropolitan area, called Keihanshin, consists of three cities – Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe, which together form one of the world`s largest economies. Students can enjoy the unbelievable combination of astonishing nature and urban life. Moreover, this megalopolis is rich in its traditions, history, and culture. Boston Boston is famous for its leading academic environment. Despite the fact that this is a medium-sized city it combines all aspects of the big city life. Students will be impressed with its attractive surroundings, culture, and arts. Boston has the strong ratings for its friendliness and ease of getting around. Brno Here you can easily become the part of the friendly student community. Brno delivers a great student experience, providing students with unforgettable nightlife, affordability, inclusivity, and tolerance. Students praise this Czech city for its astonishing attractiveness and friendly atmosphere. Ottawa Ottawa is famous for its student-centered environment with its rich bilingual and multicultural peculiarities. The capital of Canada stands out for its nightlife, tolerance, and friendliness. Ottawa offers its students the opportunities to gain experience in various scientific areas. Montreal Montreal is considered to be the cultural capital of Canada. This city is distinguished by its rich culture, diversity, arts, affordability, and friendliness. Students can enjoy the wide range of different activities. Its welcoming and multicultural environment makes Montreal particularly appealing to the youth. Seoul Seoul is the South Korean capital, which is famous for its convenience and safety. This city offers its students the diversity of opportunities and activities. The nightlife is particularly appealing. It boasts of its culture, arts, and ease of getting round. It is a perfect city not just for studies, but also for making a glittering career. Prague Prague is situated in the very heart of Europe and attracts students with its diversity beauty, historic architecture, low living costs, and nightlife. Here students always have plenty of things to do, see, drink, and eat. It is world-known for its affordability, rich culture and traditions. Taipei Taipei is a Taiwan`s capital, which provides students with convenient transports system and cheap food. Moreover, Taipei claims the highest student rating in the category for affordability which is very important for students. It also gets the high rating for friendliness. It is also important to take into account such cities as: Vienna – top for culture and arts Oslo – highest-rated for ease of getting around Canberra – the friendliest city according to student survey Riyadh – offers a lot of employment opportunities

The Devil and Tom Walker Summary and Study Guide

'The Devil and Tom Walker' Summary and Study Guide Washington Irving, one of early Americas greatest storytellers, was the author of such beloved works as Rip van Winkle (1819) and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820). Another of his short stories, The Devil and Tom Walker, is not as well known, but it is definitely worth seeking out. The Devil and Tom Walker was first published in 1824 among a collection of short stories called Tales of a Traveller, which Irving wrote as Geoffrey Crayon, one of his pseudonyms.  The Devil and Tom Walker appropriately appeared in a section called Money-Diggers, as the tale chronicles the selfish choices of an exceptionally stingy and greedy man. Historical Context Irvings piece is a relatively early entry into the many literary works considered Faustian tales - stories depicting greed, a thirst for instant gratification, and, ultimately, a deal with the devil as the means to such selfish ends. The legend of  Faust  dates to 16th-century Germany, with Christopher Marlowe dramatizing the legend in his play The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus, first performed sometime around 1588.  Faustian tales have been a hallmark of Western culture ever since, the major theme of plays, poems,  operas, classical music, and even film and television productions. It is perhaps unsurprising that, given its dark subject, The Devil and Tom Walker sparked a fair amount of controversy, particularly among the religious population. Still, many consider it one of Irvings finest stories and an exemplary piece of narrative writing. In fact, Irvings piece triggered a rebirth of sorts for the Faustian tale. It is widely reported to have inspired  Stephen Vincent Benets The Devil and Daniel Webster, which appeared in The Saturday Evening Post in 1936 - more than a century after Irvings story came out. Plot Summary The book opens with the tale of how  Captain Kidd, a pirate, buried some treasure in a swamp just outside Boston. It then jumps to the year 1727, when New Englander Tom Walker happened to find himself walking through this swamp. Walker, explains the narrator, was just the kind of man to jump at the prospect of a buried treasure, as he, along with his wife, were selfish to the point of destruction. While walking through the swamp,  Walker comes upon the devil, a great black man carrying an ax, whom Irving calls Old Scratch. The devil in disguise  tells Walker about the treasure, saying that he controls it but will give it to Tom for a price. Walker agrees readily, without really considering what he is expected to pay in return - his soul. The rest of the tale follows the twists and turns one might expect as a result of greed-driven decisions and deal-making with the devil. Main Characters Tom Walker, the protagonist of the story,  is described as a meager miserly fellow and is probably Irvings most despised (or least likable) character. Despite his many unsavory characteristics, he is also memorable.  Initially, Walker rejects Old Scratchs offer, but he eventually gives in to the devils conditions. Walker has been compared to Faust/Faustus, a character who has appeared in countless works through literary history, from Marlowe, Goethe, and beyond. Walkers wife is such a minor character that her name is never given, but she can be likened to her husband in her miserly nature and volatile temper, as Irving describes: Toms wife was a tall termagant, fierce of temper, loud of tongue, and strong of arm. Her voice was often heard in wordy warfare with her husband, and his face sometimes showed signs that their conflicts were not confined to words. Old Scratch  is another name for the devil. Old Scratch is described as a dark-skinned man. Washington Irving wrote, It is true, he was dressed in a rude, half Indian garb, and had a red belt or sash swathed round his body, but his face was neither black nor copper color, but swarthy and dingy and begrimed with soot, as if he had been accustomed to toil among fires and forges. The actions of Old Scratch are similar to other tales where he is the tempter, who offers the protagonist riches or other gains in exchange for the characters soul. Major Events and Setting The Devil and Tom Walker may be a short story but quite a bit takes place in its few pages. The events - and the locations where they take place - really drive the overarching theme of the story: avarice and its consequences. The events of the story can be divided into two locations: Old Indian Fort Tom Walker meets Old Scratch: Tom takes a shortcut through tangled, dark, and dingy swamplands, which are so dark and uninviting that they represent hell in the story. Tom meets the devil, Old Scratch, at an abandoned Indian fort hidden away in the swamplands.Old Scratch offers Tom Walker great sums of money in exchange for certain conditions. The conditions are, of course, that Walker gives his soul in his deal with the devil.The devil offers Tom riches hidden by Captain  Kidd if Tom agrees to sell his soul to Old Scratch. Tom agrees.Toms wife confronts Old Scratch. She goes into the swamplands, twice, hoping that Old Scratch would make a deal with her instead of her husband. Toms wife absconds with all of the couples valuables for the second meeting, but she disappears into the swamplands and is never heard from again. Boston Bolstered by the ill-gotten riches offered by Old Scratch, Walker opens a brokers office in Boston. Walker lends money freely, but he is merciless in his dealings and ruins the lives of many borrowers, often repossessing their property.A ruined speculator asks for a debt he owes to Tom to be forgiven. Walker refuses, but the devil rides in on a horse, easily sweeps Tom up, and gallops away - and Tom is never seen again. After that, all the deeds and notes in Walkers safe turn to ash, and his house mysteriously burns down. Key Quotes The legend of a man who sold his soul to the devil and its devious consequences has been retold many times, but Irvings original words truly reveal the story. Setting the scene: About the year 1727, just at the time when earthquakes were prevalent in New England and shook many tall sinners down upon their knees, there lived near this place a meager miserly fellow of the name of Tom Walker. Describing the protagonist: Tom was a hard-minded fellow, not easily daunted, and he had lived so long with a termagant wife, that he did not even fear the devil. Describing the protagonist and his wife: ...they were so miserly that they even conspired to cheat each other. Whatever the woman could lay hands on she hid away: a hen could not cackle but she was on the alert to secure the new-laid egg. Her husband was continually prying about to detect her secret hoards, and many and fierce were the conflicts that took place about what ought to have been common property. Laying out the potential moral consequences of greed: As Tom waxed old, however, he grew thoughtful. Having secured the good things of this world, he began to feel anxious about those of the next. The communitys state of mind regarding the death of Walker and his wife: The good people of Boston shook their heads and shrugged their shoulders, but had been so much accustomed to witches and goblins and tricks of the devil in all kinds of shapes from the first settlement of the colony, that they were not so much horror struck as might have been expected. Study Guide Questions Once students have had a chance to read this classic tale, test their knowledge with these study questions: What is important about the title? Had you ever heard the phrase before reading the story?  What are the conflicts in The Devil and Tom Walker? What types of conflict (physical, moral, intellectual, or emotional) do you see?Does Irving reveal character in  The Devil and Tom Walker?  Who was Faust (in literary history)? How could Tom Walker be said to have made a Faustian bargain?How does greed factor into this story? Do you think the Walker familys financial situation plays a factor in their choices?  Ã‚  What are some themes in the story? How do they relate to the plot and characters?  Compare and contrast Tom Walker with Scrooge in A Christmas Carol, by  Charles Dickens  Is Tom Walker consistent in his actions? Is he a fully developed character? How? Why?  Do you find the characters likable? Are the characters persons you would want to meet?  Discuss some of the symbols in The Devil and Tom Walker.  How are women portrayed in this story? Is the portrayal positiv e or negative?  Ã‚  Does the story end the way you expected? How? Why? How did you feel about the ending? Was it fair? Why or why not?   What is the central or primary purpose of the story? Is the purpose important or meaningful?  How essential is the setting to the story? Could the story have taken place anywhere else?  What supernatural or surprising events are employed by  Washington Irving? Are these happenings believable?  How do you think Irvings Christian  beliefs impacted his writing?  Ã‚  What would you trade your soul for?  Do you think Tom and his wife made the right choice?

Abercrombie & Fitch Internal Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Abercrombie & Fitch Internal Analysis - Essay Example They are also dealing with different types of accessories products like cologne and perfume. They are offering their products to different segments like youth men and women targeting the student demographics like the post graduates, graduates and college students (Graakjaer, 2012). The firm was set up in the 1892 by David Abercrombie. In the initial days, it was popular with the name David T. Abercrombie Co. It started as a waterfront shop and established for the factory in New York City area. Gradually, it gained popularity as dealers of rough, outdoor kits and accessories. The Limited Inc. acquired it during 1988 (Walters, 2008). Henceforth, from 1992, they started to provide effective fashion-attire. The casual apparel business was converted into public limited organization in the fiscal year 1996. In that time, The Limited Inc. reserved 84 percent share of business. However, in the year 1998, the parent company sold their remainder of shares among the general shareholders (Engel, 2004). In the year 1892, Abercrombie & Fitch began to produce fashion products. Recently, they are operating through the huge channel of the lifestyle and retail segment having nearly 300 stores. Product diversification strategies are being used the firms in order to attract the customers rapidly. The firm promoted "Abercrombie" stores for selling apparel products for children and teenagers. They are publishing some magazine and catalogues for disseminating features of various attire products (Bradway, 2006). The firm is producing different stylist apparel, accessories, personal care and footwear ranges in the worldwide segment. Abercrombie & Fitch is operating in more than 1000 locations with more than 13000 fulltime and 66000 part-time employees. Organizational structure of the firm can be stated with the following diagram (Lambertini, 2009). Abercrombie & Fitch Company is one of the major USA based apparel and

The origin of islam, what is sunni and Shia what are the key Essay

The origin of islam, what is sunni and Shia what are the key differences between the two branches of islam and what kind of issues arise from the differences - Essay Example This paper presents an in-depth and critical analysis of the history of Islam and the major differences between the Shia and Sunni sects (Esposito 97). It does this by focusing on the origin and meaning of the religion and goes ahead to look at the differences between the beliefs hold by the Shia and Sunni and how they have impacted on their relationships. Islam is a religion that was coined from an Arabic word ‘salema’ which can be interpreted to mean ‘submission, peace or obedience.’ As a monotheistic religion, all Muslims (believers of Islamic faith) are required to submit to the Allah and worship Him as the only God. Meaning, they should submit to His will and always accept to obey His laws because it is the best thing to do by a believer as it can provide peace and fulfillment. Just like any other religion, Islam has a set of doctrines that are contained in a Quran-its main holy book. These were passed through Prophet Mohamed (PBUH). In terms of teachings, Islam has its unique set of doctrines that all its believers are expected to practice. These fundamental teachings can be summarized into five main pillars: shahadah; sawm; salat; zakat; and hajj. Each of these stipulates requirements that each and every Muslim needs to fulfill as part of their spiritual pursuit. For instance, according to shahadah, each and every believer should not believe in the existence of any other god rather than Allah and His prophet Mohamed (PBUH). On the other hand salat requires believers to say prayers to Allah five times per day. Meanwhile, zakat advocates for the contribution of alms by each and every believer so as to help the poor people who can not afford daily bread. Nonetheless, sawm requires every Muslim believer to perform the ritualistic annual fasting during the holy month of Ramadan (Esposito 91). Last, but not least, hajj, all able Muslim believers need to pay pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their life time becaus e it is the holy city of

Financial Valuation Techniques Research Proposal

Financial Valuation Techniques - Research Proposal Example The research will be conducted from the perspective of strategic valuation and financial valuation. Strategic valuation will relate to historical analysis of the companies and application of models like SWOT, Porter's Diamond, Porter's Five Forces Model, Ansoff Analysis and Balanced Scorecard Analysis. Financial valuation shall be related to DuPont Analysis, Key Ratios, Capital Budgeting, and Cash Flow analysis, Income Analysis, Asset Analysis and Market Analysis. The final outcome shall be a critical comparison of future forecasts of the selected companies applying all the theories. The Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) has global assets which are worth more than $1120 billion. The RBS is the 2nd biggest private bank in Europe, and the 6th biggest in the world. RBS is the 14th biggest company in the world (Forbes Global 2000). Apart from this RBS are an enormously important private investor of oil and gas extraction. This is not only high levels of funding for oil and gas projects, but RBS are 'the oil and gas bank'. They are the central driver of development of the oil and gas industry. The position of RBS on global climate change is far less liberal than many other banks. In spite of stating that the bank "distinguish the considerable global threat laid by climate change", RBS has reported it as 'preposterous' to admit liability for the climate affects ensuing from their loans to fossil fuel projects. Barclays is a financial services group based in UK. It is also an international banking organisation having branches all over Asia-Pacific, Europe and South America. The company is primarily engaged in banking, investment banking and investment management. With regard to market capitalisation, Barclays is one among the top ten banks in the world. Barclays also provides interconnected global services to translational corps and financial institutions all over the world. It is a leading UK retail and business bank with around 76,200 employees and with operations in more than 60 countries. Research Questions The research would help in identifying the following: 1. The role of management in the working environment of both the banks. 2. The major difference in the financial analysis between the two chosen banks. 3. What are the various Valuation Techniques prevalent in the Financial Markets pertaining to the Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) and Barclays Bank Scope of the Research Study Both the banks have grown to be really big so it is very difficult and complex to study its operations in a comprehensive way. Thus this research study will be limited in its quantitative dimension. The questionnaires and interviews will be conducted by limiting the number of employees of both the banks. Due to limitations of the resources it is not possible to conduct a comprehensive quantitative study. On the other hand, the qualitative dimension of this research project will be much more comprehensive since it is

History And Fundamental Concept Of Acoustic Music Essay

History And Fundamental Concept Of Acoustic Music Essay Acoustics is the study of the physical characteristics of sounds. Its deal with things like the frequency, amplitude and complexity of sound waves and how sound waves interact with various environments. It can also be refer casually and generally to the over-all quality of sound in a given place. Someone might say in a non-technical conversation: I like to perform at Smith Hall; the acoustics are very brights.   From the everyday sounds of speech, the hum of appliances, to the sounds caused by wind and water, we are immersed in an ocean of sounds. Yet, what is sound, and how do we hear it? Why do two instruments playing the same note sound different? In this lab you will learn the basics of the answers to these questions. To answer the later question, we will analyze sound as an audio engineer would, through a technique called harmonic analysis. Harmonic analysis allows sound to be understood from a quantitative perspective. Also, we will come to an understanding of why the way a computer analyses sound is similar to how our ears analyse sound. I will start this genre presentation by introducing the genre acoustic music. It isnt really a genre, as music played with acoustic instruments can sound very different, but I chose to call the post this, as acoustic music have many similarities. If you like these songs, you should really check out  Bedtime Tunes, which is a site only with songs like these. So without further ado, here are 11 songs with acoustic guitars, pianos, strings and beautiful voices: First here is Antony Hearty with his band  Antony and the Johnsons. Antony Hegarty is a very special person, he is transgendrous, and his voice is absolutely amazing. Unfortunately I havent seen him live, but Ive heard that almost all of the audience comes out from the concert crying Or Acoustics (from Greek pronounced acoustics meaning of or for hearing, ready to hear) is the science that studies sound, in particular its production, transmission, and effects. Sound can often be considered as something pleasant; an example of this would be music. In that case a main application is room acoustics, since the purpose of room acoustical design and optimisation is to make a room sound as good as possible. But some noises can also be unpleasant and make people feel uncomfortable. In fact noise reduction is a major challenge, particularly within the transportation industry as people are becoming more and more demanding. Furthermore ultrasounds also have applications in detection, such as sonar systems or non-destructive material testing. 2. History of acoustic If he first mentioned the Acoustique Art in his  Advancement of Learning  (1605), Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was drawing a distinction between the physical acoustics he expanded in the  Sylva Sylva rum  (1627) and the harmonics of the Pythagorean mathematical tradition. The Pythagorean tradition still survived in Bacons time in the works of such diverse people as Gioseffo Zarlino (1517-1590), Renà © Descartes (1596-1650), and Johannes Kepler (1571-1630). In Bacons words: The nature of sounds, in some sort, [hath  been with some  diligence  inquired,] as far as concerneth music. But the nature of sounds in general hath been superficially observed. It is one of the subtlest pieces of nature. Bacons Acoustique Art was therefore concerned with the study of immusical sounds and with experiments in the migration in sounds so that the harnessing of sounds in buildings (architectural acoustics) by their enclosure in artificial channels inside the walls or in the environment (hydraulic acoustics). Aim of Baconian acoustics was to catalog,  quantify, and shape human space by means of sound. This stemmed from the  echometria,  an early modern tradition of literature on echo, as studied by the mathematicians Giuseppe Biancani (1566-1624), Marin Mersenne (1588-1648), and Daniello Bartoli (1608-1685), in which the model of optics was applied in acoustics to the behaviour of sound. It was in a sense a historical  antecedent  to Isaac Newtons (1642-1727) analogy between colours and musical tones in  Upticks  (1704). Athanasius Kirchers (1601-1680)  Phonurgia Nova  of 1673 was the outcome of this tradition. Attacking British acoustics traditions, Kirsches argued that the origin of the Acoustical Art lay in his own earlier experiments with sounding tubes at the Collegio Romano in 1649 and sketched the ideology of a Christian baroque science of acoustics designed to dominate the world by exploiting the boundless  powers of sound 17th-century empirical observations and mathematical explanations of the simultaneous vibrations of a string at different frequencies were important in the development of modern experimental acoustics. The earliest contribution in this branch of acoustics was made by Mersenne, who derived the mathematical law governing the physics of a vibrating string. Around 1673 Christian Huygens (1629-1695) estimated its absolute frequency, and in 1677 John Wallis (1616-1703) published a report of experiments on the overtones of a vibrating string. In 1692 Francis Roberts (1650-1718) followed with similar findings. These achievements paved the way for the 18th-century  acoustique  of Joseph Sauveur (1653-1716) and for the work of Brook Taylor (1685-1731), Leonhard Euler (1707-1783), Jean Le Rond d Alembert  (1717-1783), Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782), and Giordani Riccati (1709-1790), who all attempted to determine mathematically the fundamental tone and the overtones of a  sonorous  body. Modern experimental acoustics sought in nature, a physical law of the sounding body, the perfect harmony that in the Pythagorean tradition sprang from the mind of the geometrizing God. Experimental epistemology in acoustics also influenced the studies of the anatomy and physiology of hearing, especially the work of Joseph-Guichard Duverney (1648-1730) and Antonio Maria Valsalva (1666-1723), that in the 19th century gave rise to physiological and psychological acoustics. 3. Fundamental concepts of acoustics The study of acoustics revolves around the generation, propagation and reception of mechanical waves and vibrations. The steps shown in the above diagram can be found in any acoustical event or process. There are many kinds of cause, both natural and volitional. There are many kinds of transduction process that convert energy from some other form into acoustic energy, producing the acoustic wave. There is one fundamental equation that describes acoustic wave propagation, but the phenomena that emerge from it are varied and often complex. The wave carries energy throughout the propagating medium. Eventually this energy is transduced again into other forms, in ways that again may be natural and/or volitionally contrived. The final effect may be purely physical or it may reach far into the biological or volitional domains. The five basic steps are found equally well whether we are talking about an earthquake, a submarine using sonar to locate its foe, or a band playing in a rock concert. The central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls within the domain of physical acoustics. In  fluids, sound propagates primarily as a pressure wave. In solids, mechanical waves can take many forms including  longitudinal waves,  transverse HYPERLINK http://www.answers.com/topic/transverse-wavewaves  and  surface waves. Acoustics looks first at the pressure levels and frequencies in the sound wave. Transduction processes are also of special importance. 4. Application of Acoustics The science of sound and hearing. This treats the sonic qualities of rooms and buildings, and the transmission of sound by the voice, musical instruments or electric means. Voice is caused by vibration, which is communicated by the sound source to the air as fluctuations in pressure and then to the listeners ear-drum. The faster the vibration (or the greater its frequency) the higher the pitch. The greater the amplitude of the vibration, the louder the sound. Mostly musical sound consist not only of regular vibration at one particular frequency but also vibration at various multiples of that frequency. The frequency of middle C is 256 cycles per second (or Hertz, abbreviated Hz) but when one hears middle C there are components of the sound vibrating at 512 Hz, 768 Hz etc (see  Harmonics). The presence and relative strength of these harmonics determine the quality of a sound. The difference in quality, for example. between a flute, an oboe and a clarinet playing the same note is tha t the flutes tone is relatively pure (i.e. has few and weak harmonics), the oboe is rich in higher harmonics and the clarinet has a preponderance of odd-numbered harmonics. Their different harmonic spectra are caused primarily by the way the sound vibration is actuated (by the blowing of air across an edge with the flute, by the oboes double reed and the clarinets single reed) and by the shape of the tube. Where the players lips are the vibrating agent, as with most brass instruments, the tube can be made to sound not its fundamental note but other harmonics by means of the players lip pressure. The vibrating air column is only one of the standard ways of creating musical sound. The longer the column the lower the pitch; the players can raise the pitch by uncovering hole in the tubes. With that human voice, air is set in motion by means of the vocal cords, folds in the throat which convert the air stream from the lungs into sound; pitch is controlled by the size and shape of the cavities in the pharynx and mouth. For a string instrument, such as the violin, the guitar or the piano, the string is set in vibration by (respectively) bowing, plucking or striking; the tighter and thinner the string, the fasters it will vibrate. By pressing the string against the fingerboard and thus making the operative string-length shorter, the player can raise the pitch. With a percussion instrument, such as the drum or the xylophone, a membrane or a piece of wood is set in vibration by striking; sometimes the vibration is regular and gives a definite pitch but sometimes the pitch is indefinit e. In the recording of sound, the vibration patterns set up by the instrument or instruments to be recorded are encode by analogue (or, in recent recordings. digitally) in terms of electrical impulse. This information can then be stored, in mechanical or electrical form; this can then be decoded, amplified and conveyed to loudspeakers which transmit the same vibration pattern to the airs. The study of the acoustics of buildings is immensely complicated because of the variety of ways in which sound is conveyed, reflected, diffused, absorbed etc. The design of buildings for performances has to take account of such matters as the smooth and even representation of sound at all pitches in all parts of the building, the balance of clarity and blend and the directions in which reflected sound may impinge upon the audiences. The use of particular material (especially wood and artificial acoustical substances) and the breaking-up of surfaces, to avoid certain types of reflection of sounds, play a part in the design of concert halls, which however remains an uncertain art in which experimentation and tuning (by shifting surface, by adding resonators etc.) is often necessary. The term acoustic is sometimes used, of a recording or an instrument, to mean not electric: an acoustic recording is one made before electric methods came into use, and an acoustic guitar is one not electri cally amplified. 4.1 Theory of acoustic The area of physics known as acoustics is devoted to the study of the production, transmission, and reception of sound. Thus, wherever sound is produced and transmitted, it will have an effect some whereas, even if there is no one present to hear it. The medium of sound transmissions is an all-important, key factor. Among the areas addressed within the realm of acoustics are the production of sounds by the human sounds and various instrument, as like the reception of sound waves by the human ear. 5. Working concept of acoustic Sound waves are an example of a larger phenomenon known as wave motion, and wave motion is, in turn, a subset of harmonic motion-that is, repeated movement of a particle about a position of equilibrium, or balance. In the case of sound, the particle is not an item of matter, but of energy, and wave motion is a type of harmonic movement that carries energy from one place to another without actually moving any matter. Particles in waves experience  oscillation, harmonic motion in one or more dimensions. Oscillation itself involves little movement, though some particles do move short distances as they interact with other particles. Primarily, however, it involves only movement in place. The waves themselves, on the other hand, move across space, ending up in a position different from the one in which they started. A  transverse  wave forms a regular up-and-down pattern in which the oscillation is  perpendicular  to the direction the wave is moving. This is a fairly easy type of wave to visualize: imagine a curve moving up and down along a straight line. Sound waves, on the other hand, are  longitudinal  waves, in which oscillation occurs in the same direction as the wave itself. These oscillations are really just fluctuations in pressure. As a sound wave moves through a medium such as air, these changes in pressure cause the medium to experience alternations of density and rarefaction  (a decrease in density). It , in turn, produces vibrations in the human ear or in any other object that receives the sound waves. 5.1 Properties of Sound Waves 5.1.1 Cycle and Period The term cycle has a definition that varies slightly, depending on whether the type of motion being discussed is oscillation, the movement of transverse waves, or the motion of a longitudinal sound wave. In the latter case, a cycle is defined as a single complete  vibration. A period (represented by the symbol  T) is the amount of time required to complete one full cycle. The period of a sound wave can be mathematically related to several other aspects of wave motion, including wave speed, frequency, and  wavelength. 5.1.2 The Speed of Sound in Various Medium People often refer to the speed of sound as though this were a fixed value like the speed of light, but, in fact, the speed of sound is a function of the medium through which it travels. What people ordinarily  mean by the speed of sound is the speed of sound through air at a specific temperature. For sound travelling at sea level, the speed at 32 °F (0 °C) is 740 MPH (331 m/s), and at 68 °F (20 °C), it is 767 MPH (343 m/s). In the essay on  aerodynamics, the speed of sound for aircraft was given at 660 MPH (451 m/s). This is much less than the figures given above for the speed of sound through air at sea level, because obviously, aircraft are not flying at sea level, but well above it, and the air through which they pass is well below freezing temperature. The speed of sound through a gas is proportional to the square root of the pressure divided by the density. According to Gay-Lussacs law, pressure is directly related to temperature, meaning that the lower the pressure, the lower the temperature-and vice versa. At high altitudes, the temperature is low, and, therefore, so is the pressure; and, due to the relatively small gravitational pull that Earth exerts on the air at that height, the density is also low. Hence, the speed of sound is also low. It follows that the higher the pressure of the material, and the greater the density, the faster sound travels through it: thus sound travels faster through a liquid than through a gas. This might seem a bit surprising: at first  glance, it would seem that sound travels fastest through air, but only because we are just more  accustomed  to hearing sounds that travel through that medium. The speed of sound in water varies from about 3,244 MPH (1,450 m/s) to about 3,355 MPH (1500 m/s). Sound travels even faster through a solid-typically about 11,185 MPH (5,000 m/s)-than it does through a liquid. 5.1.3 Frequency Frequency (abbreviated  f) is the number of waves passing through a given point during the interval of one second. It is measured in Hertz (Hz), named after nineteenth-century German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857-1894) and a Hertz is equal to one cycle of oscillation per second. Higher frequencies are expressed in terms of  kilohertz  (kHz; 103  or 1,000 cycles per second) or  megahertz(MHz; 106  or 1 million cycles per second.) The human ear is capable of hearing sounds from 20 to approximately 20,000 Hz-a relatively small range for a mammal, considering that bats, whales, and dolphins can hear sounds at a frequency up to 150  kHz. Human speech is in the range of about 1 kHz, and the 88 keys on a piano vary in frequency from 27 Hz to 4,186 Hz. Each note has its own frequency, with middle C (the white key in the very middle of a piano keyboard) at 264 Hz. The quality of harmony or  dissonance  when two notes are played together is a function of the relationship between the frequencies of the two. Frequencies below the range of human  audibility  are called  infrasound, and those above it are referred to as  ultrasound. There are a number of practical applications for  ultrasonic  technology in medicine, navigation, and other fields. 5.1.4 Wavelength Wavelength (represented by the symbol ÃŽÂ », the Greek letter lambda) is the distance between a crest and the adjacent crest, or a trough and an adjacent trough, of a wave. The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength, and vice versa. Thus, a frequency of 20 Hz, at the bottom end of human audibility, has a very large wavelength: 56 ft. (17 m). The top end frequency of 20,000 Hz is only 0.67 inches (17 mm). There is a special type of high-frequency sound wave beyond ultrasound: hyper sound, which has frequencies above 107  MHz, or 10 trillion Hz. It is almost impossible for hyper sound waves to travel through all but the densest media, because their wavelengths are so short. In order to be transmitted properly, hyper sound requires an extremely tight molecular structure; otherwise, the wave would get lost between molecules. Wavelengths of visible light, part of the electromagnetic spectrum, have a frequency much higher even than hyper sounds waves: about 109  MHz, 100 times greater than for hyper sound. This, in turn, means that these wavelengths are incredibly small, and this is why light waves can easily be blocked out by using ones hand or a  curtain. The same does not hold for sound waves, because the wavelengths of sounds in the range of human audibility are comparable to the size of ordinary objects. To block out a sound wave, one needs something of much greater dimensions-width, height, and depth-than a mere cloth curtain. A thick concrete wall, for instance, may be enough to block out the waves. Better still would be the use of materials that absorb sound, such as cork, or even the use of machines that produce sound waves which destructively interfere with the offending sounds. 5.1.5 Amplitude and Intensity Amplitude is critical to the understanding of sound, though it is mathematically independent from the parameters so far discussed. Defined as the maximum displacement of a vibrating material, amplitude  is the size of a wave. The greater the amplitude, the greater the energy the wave contains: amplitude indicates intensity, commonly known as volume, which is the rate at which a wave moves energy per unit of a cross-sectional area. Intensity can be measured in watts per square meter, or W/m2. A sound wave of minimum intensity for human audibility would have a value of 10à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢12, or 0.000000000001, W/m2. As a basis of comparison, a person speaking in an ordinary tone of voice generates about 10à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢4, or 0.0001, watts. On the other hand, a sound with an intensity of 1 W/m2  would be powerful enough to damage a persons ears. 5.2 Real-Life Applications 5.2.1 Decibel Levels For measuring the intensity of a sound as experienced by the human ear, we use a unit other than the watt per square meter, because ears do not respond to sounds in a linear, or straight-line, progression. If the intensity of a sound is doubled, a person perceives a greater intensity, but nothing approaching twice that of the original sound. Instead, a different system-known in mathematics as a logarithmic scale-is applied. In measuring the effect of sound intensity on the human ear, a unit called the  decibel  (abbreviated dB) is used. A sound of minimal audibility (10à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢12  W/m2) is assigned the value of 0 dB, and 10 dB is 10 times as great-10à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢11  W/m2. But 20 dB is not 20 times as intense as 0 dB; it is 100 times as intense, or 10à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢10  W/m2. Every increase of 10 dB thus indicates a  tenfold  increase in intensity. Therefore, 120 dB, the maximum decibel level that a human ear can endure without experiencing damage, is not 120 times as great as the minimal level for audibility, but 1012  (1  trillion) times as great-equal to 1 W/m2, referred to above as the highest safe intensity level. Of course, sounds can be much louder than 120 dB: a rock band, for instance, can generate sounds of 125 dB, which is 5 times the maximum safe decibel level. A gunshot,  firecracker, or a jet-if one is exposed to these sounds at a sufficiently close proximity-can be as high as 140 dB, or 20 times the maximum safe level. Nor is 120 dB safe for prolonged periods: hearing experts indicate that regular and repeated exposure to even 85 dB (5 less than a lawn  mower) can cause permanent damage to ones hearing. 5.3 Production of Sound Waves 5.3.1 Musical Instruments Sound waves are vibrations; thus, in order to produce sound, vibrations must be produced. For a stringed instrument, such as a guitar,  harp, or piano, the strings must be set into vibration, either by the musicians fingers or the mechanism that connects piano keys to the strings inside the case of the piano. In other woodwind instruments and horns, the musician causes vibrations by blowing into the mouthpiece. The exact process by which the vibrations emerge as sound differs between woodwind instruments, such as a  clarinet  or  saxophone  on the one hand, and brass instruments, such as a trumpet or  trombone  on the other. Then there is a drum or other percussion instrument, which produces vibrations, if not musical notes. 5.3.2 Electronic Amplification Sound is a form of energy: thus, when an automobile or other machine produces sound  incidental  to its operation, this actually represents energy that is lost. Energy itself is conserved, but not all of the energy put into the machine can ever be realized as useful energy; thus, the automobile loses some energy in the form of sound and heat. The fact that sound is energy, however, also means that it can be converted to other forms of energy, and this is precisely what a  microphone  does: it receives sound waves and converts them to electrical energy. These electrical signals are transmitted to an  amplifier, and next to a  loudspeaker, which turns electrical energy back into sound energy-only now, the intensity of the sound is much greater. Inside a loudspeaker is a  diaphragm, a thin, flexible disk that vibrates with the intensity of the sound it produces. When it pushes outward, the diaphragm forces nearby air molecules closer together, creating a high-pressure region around the loudspeaker. (Remember, as stated earlier, that sound is a matter of fluctuations in pressure.) The diaphragm is then pushed backward in response, freeing up an area of space for the air molecules. These, then, rush toward the diaphragm, creating a low-pressure region behind the high-pressure one. The loudspeaker thus sends out alternating waves of high and low pressure, vibrations on the same frequency of the original sound. 5.3.3 The Human Voice As impressive as the electronic means of sound production are (and of course the description just given is highly simplified), this technology pales in comparison to the greatest of all sound-producing mechanisms: the human voice. Speech itself is a highly complex physical process, much too involved to be discussed in any depth here. For our present purpose, it is important only to recognize that speech is essentially a matter of producing vibrations on the vocal cords, and then transmitting those vibrations. Before a person speaks, the brain sends signals to the vocal cords, causing them to  tighten. As speech begins, air is forced across the vocal cords, and this produces vibrations. The action of the vocal cords in producing these vibrations is, like everything about the miracle of speech,  exceedingly involved: at any given moment as a person is talking, parts of the vocal cords are opened, and parts are closed. The sound of a persons voice is affected by a number of factors: the size and shape of the sinuses and other cavities in the head, the shape of the mouth, and the placement of the teeth and tongue. These factors influence the production of specific frequencies of sound, and result in differing vocal qualities. Again, the mechanisms of speech are highly complicated, involving action of the diaphragm (a partition of muscle and tissue between the chest and  abdominal  cavities),  larynx, pharynx,  glottis, hard and soft palates, and so on. But, it all begins with the production of vibrations. 6. Propagation: Does It Make a Sound As stated in the introduction, acoustics is concerned with the production, transmission (sometimes called propagation), and reception of sound. Transmission has already been examined in terms of the speed at which sound travels through various media. One aspect of sound transmission needs to be reiterated, however: for sound to be propagated, there must be a medium. There is an age-old philosophical question that goes something like this: If a tree falls in the woods and there is no one to hear it, does it make a sound? In fact, the question is not a matter of philosophy at all, but of physics, and the answer is, of course, yes. As the tree falls, it releases energy in a number of forms, and part of this energy is manifested as sound waves. Consider, on the other hand, this rephrased version of the question: If a tree falls in a vacuum-an area completely  devoid  of matter, including air-does it make a sound? The answer is now a qualified no: certainly, there is a release of energy, as before, but the sound waves cannot be transmitted. Without air or any other matter to carry the waves, there is literally no sound. Hence, there is a great deal of truth to the tagline associated with the 1979 science-fiction film  Alien  : In space, no one can hear you scream. Inside an astronauts suit, there is pressure and an oxygen supply; without either, the astronaut would  perish  quickly. The pressure and air inside the suit also allow the astronaut to hear sounds within the suit, including communications via microphone from other astronauts. But, if there were an explosion in the vacuum of deep space outside the spacecraft, no one inside would be able to hear it. 7. Reception of Sound 7.1 Recording Earlier the structure of electronic  amplification  was described in very simple terms. Some of the same processes-specifically, the conversion of sound to electrical energy-are used in the recording of sound. In sound recording, when a sound wave is emitted, it causes vibrations in a diaphragm attached to an electrical  condenser. This causes variations in the electrical current passed on by the condenser. These electrical pulses are processed and ultimately passed on to an electromagnetic recording head. The magnetic field of the recording head extends over the section of tape being recorded: what began as loud sounds now produce strong magnetic fields, and soft sounds produce weak fields. Yet, just as electronic means of sound production and transmission are still not as impressive as the mechanisms of the human voice, so electronic sound reception and recording technology is a less magnificent device than the human ear. 8. How the Ear Hears As almost everyone has noticed, a change in altitude (and, hence, of atmospheric pressure) leads to a strange popping sensation in the ears. Usually, this condition can be overcome by swallowing, or even better, by  yawning. This opens the  Eustachian tube, a  passageway  that maintains atmospheric pressure in the ear. Useful as it is, the Eustachian tube is just one of the human ears many parts. The funny shape of the ear helps it to capture and  amplify  sound waves, which  pass-through  the ear canal and cause the  eardrum  to vibrate. Though humans can hear sounds over a much wider range, the optimal range of audibility is from 3,000 to 4,000 Hz. This is because the structure of the ear canal is such that sounds in this frequency produce  magnified  pressure fluctuations. Thanks to this, as well as other specific properties, the ear acts as an amplifier of sounds. Beyond the eardrum is the middle ear, an  intricate  sound-reception device containing some of the smallest bones in the human body-bones commonly known, because of their shapes, as the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. Vibrations pass from the hammer to the anvil to the stirrup, through the membrane that covers the oval window, and into the inner ear. Filled with liquid, the inner ear contains the semi-circular canals responsible for providing a sense of balance or orientation: without these, a person literally would not know which way is up. Also, in the inner ear is the  cochlea, an organ shaped like a  snail. Waves of pressure from the fluids of the inner ear are passed through the cochlea to the  auditory  nerve, which then transmits these signals to the brain. The basilar membrane of the cochlea is a particularly  wondrous  instrument, responsible in large part for the ability to discriminate between sounds of different frequencies and intensities. The surface of the membrane is covered with thousands of fibres, which are highly sensitive to disturbances, and it transmits information concerning these disturbances to the auditory nerve. The brain, in turn, forms a relation between the position of the nerve ending and the frequency of the sound. It also equates the degree of disturbance in the  basilar membrane  with the intensity of the sound: the greater the disturbance, the louder the sounds.