Construction of a Research Questionnaire

Construction of a Research Questionnaire Construction of appropriate questionnaire items Section 2, Question 3 Describe what is involved in testing and validating a research questionnaire. (The answer to question 3 should be no fewer than 6 pages, including references) The following criteria will be used in assessing question 3: Construction of appropriate questionnaire items Sophistication of understanding of crucial design issues Plan for use of appropriate sampling method and sample Plan to address validity and reliability in a manner appropriate to methodology In order to construct an appropriate research questionnaire, it is imperative to first have a clear understanding of the scope of the research project. It would be most beneficial to solidify these research goals in written form, and then focus the direction of the study to address the research questions. After developing the research questions, the researcher would further read the related literature regarding the research topic, specifically searching for ideas and theories based on the analysis of the construct(s) to be measured. Constructs are essentially mathematical descriptions or theories of how our test behavior is either likely to change following or during certain situations (Kubiszyn & Borich, 2007, p. 311). It is important to know what the literature says about these construct(s) and the most accurate, concise ways to measure them. Constructs are psychological in nature and are not tangible, concrete variables because they cannot be observed directly (Gay Airasian, 2003 ). Hopkins (1998) explains that psychological constructs are unobservable, postulated variables that have evolved either informally or from psychological theory (p. 99). Hopkins also maintains that when developing the items to measure the construct(s), it is imperative to ask multiple items per construct to ensure they are being adequately measured. Another important aspect in developing items for a questionnaire is to find an appropriate scale for all the items to be measured (Gay Airasian, 2003). Again, this requires researching survey instruments similar to the one being developed for the current study and also determining what the literature says about how to best measure these constructs. The next step in designing the research questionnaire is to validate it-to ensure it is measuring what it is intended to measure. In this case, the researcher would first establish construct validity evidence, which is ensuring that the research questionnaire is measuring the ideas and theories related to the research project. An instrument has construct validity evidence if its relationship to other information corresponds well with some theory (Kubiszyn Borich, 2007, p. 309). Another reason to go through the validation process is to minimize factors that can weaken the validity of a research instrument, including unclear test directions, confusing and/or ambiguous test items, and vocabulary and sentence structures too difficult for test takers (Gay Airasian, 2003). After developing a rough draft of the questionnaire, including the items that measure the construct(s) for this study, the researcher should then gather a small focus group that is representative of the population to be studied (Johnson, 2007). The purpose of this focus group is to discuss the research topic, to gain additional perspectives about the study, and to consider new ideas about how to improve the research questionnaire so it is measuring the constructs accurately. This focus group provides the researcher with insight on what questions to revise and what questions should be added or deleted, if any. The focus group can also provide important information as to what type of language and vocabulary is appropriate for the group to be studied and how to best approach them (Krueger Casey, 2009). All of this groups feedback would be recorded and used to make changes, edits, and revisions to the research questionnaire. Another step in the validation process is to let a panel of experts (fellow researchers, professors, those who have expertise in the field of study) read and review the survey instrument, checking it for grammatical errors, wording issues, unclear items (loaded questions, biased questions), and offer their feedback. Also, their input regarding the validity of the items is vital. As with the other focus group, any feedback should be recorded and used to make changes, edits, and revisions to the research questionnaire (Johnson, 2007). The next step entails referring to the feedback received from the focus group and panel of experts. Any issues detected by the groups must be addressed so the research questionnaire can serve its purpose (Johnson, 2007). Next, the researcher should revise the questions and research questionnaire, considering all the input obtained and make any other changes that would improve the instrument. Any feedback obtained regarding the wording of items must be carefully considered, because the participants in the study must understand exactly what the questions are asking so they can respond accurately and honestly. It is also imperative to consider the feedback regarding the directions and wording of the research questionnaire. The directions of the questionnaire should be clear and concise, leaving nothing to personal interpretation (Suskie, 1996). The goal is that all participants should be able to read the directions and know precisely how to respond and complete the questionnaire. To bet ter ensure honesty of responses, it is imperative to state in the directions that answers are anonymous (if applicable), and if they mistakenly write any identifying marks on the questionnaire, those marks will be immediately erased. If that type of scenario is not possible in the design of the study, the researcher should still communicate the confidentiality of the information obtained in this study and how their personal answers and other information will not be shared with anyone. Whatever the case or research design, the idea is to have participants answer the questions honestly so the most accurate results are obtained. Assuring anonymity and/or confidentiality to participants is another way to help ensure that valid data are collected. The next phase entails pilot-testing the research questionnaire on a sample of people similar to the population on which the survey will ultimately be administered. This group should be comprised of approximately 20 people (Johnson, 2007), and the instrument should be administered under similar conditions as it will be during the actual study. The purpose of this pilot-test is two-fold; the first reason is to once again check the validity of the instrument by obtaining feedback from this group, and the second reason is to do a reliability analysis. Reliability is basically the degree to which a test consistently measure whatever it is measuring (Gay Airasian, 2003, p. 141). A reliability analysis is essential when developing a research questionnaire because a research instrument lacking reliability cannot measure any variable better than chance alone (Hopkins, 1998). Hopkins goes on to say that reliability is an essential prerequisite to validity because a research instrument must c onsistently yield reliable scores to have any confidence in validity. After administering the research questionnaire to this small group, a reliability analysis of the results must be done. The reliability analysis to be used is Cronbachs alpha (Hopkins, 1998), which allows an overall reliability coefficient to be calculated, as well as coefficients for each of the sub-constructs (if any). The overall instrument, as well as the sub-constructs, should yield alpha statistics greater than .70 (Johnson, 2007). This analysis would decide if the researcher needs to revise the items or proceed with administering the instrument to the target population. The researcher should also use the feedback obtained from this group to ensure that the questions are clear and present no ambiguity. Any other feedback obtained should be used to address any problems with the research questionnaire. Should there be any problems with particular items, then necessary changes would be made to ensure the item i s measuring what it is supposed to be measuring. However, should there be issues with an entire construct(s) that is yielding reliability and/or validity problems, then the instrument would have to be revised, reviewed again by the panel of experts, and retested on another small group. After the instrument goes through this process and has been corrected and refined with acceptable validity and reliability, it is time to begin planning to administer it to the target population. After the research questionnaire has established validity and reliability, the next step is to begin planning how to administer it to the participants of the study. To begin this process, it is imperative to define who the target population of the study is. Unfortunately, it is often impossible to gather data from everyone in a population due to feasibility and costs. Therefore, sampling must be used to collect data. According to Gay and Airasian (2003), Sampling is the process of selecting a number of participants for a study in such a way that they represent the larger group from which they were selected (p. 101). This larger group that the authors refer to is the population, and the population is the group to which the results will ideally generalize. However, out of any population, the researcher will have to determine those who are accessible or available. In most studies, the chosen population for study is usually a realistic choice and not always the target one (Gay Airasian, 2003). After choosing the population to be studied, it is important to define that population so the reader will know how to apply the findings to that population. The next step in the research study is to select a sample, and the quality of this sample will ultimately determine the integrity and generalizability of the results. Ultimately, the researcher should desire a sample that is representative of the defined population to be studied. Ideally, the researcher wants to minimize sampling error by using random sampling techniques. Random sampling techniques include simple random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling (Gay Airasian, 2003). According to the authors, these sampling techniques operate just as they are named: simple random sampling is using a means to randomly select an adequate sample of participants from a population; stratified random sampling allows a researcher to sample subgroups in such a way that they are proportional in the same way they exist in the population; and cluster sampling randomly selects groups from a larger population (Gay Airasian, 2003). Systematic sampling is a form of s imple random sampling, where the researcher simply selects every tenth person, for example. These four random sampling techniques, or variations thereof, are the most widely used random sampling procedures. While random sampling allows for the best chance to obtained unbiased samples, sometimes it is not always possible. Therefore, the researcher resorts to nonrandom sampling techniques. These techniques include convenience sampling, purposive sampling, and quota sampling (Gay Airasian, 2003). Convenience sampling is simply sampling whoever happens to be available, while purposive sampling is where the researcher selects a sample based on knowledge of the group to be sampled (Gay Airasian, 2003). Lastly, quota sampling is a technique used in large-scale surveys when a population of interest is too large to define. With quota sampling, the researcher usually will have a specific number of participants to target with specific demographics (Gay Airasian, 2003). The sampling method ultimately chosen will depend upon the population determined to be studied. In an ideal scenario, random sampling would be employed, which improves the strength and generalizability of the results. However, should random sampling not be possible, the researcher would mostly likely resort to convenience sampling. Although not as powerful as random sampling, convenience sampling is used quite a bit and can be useful in educational research (Johnson, 2007). Of course, whatever sampling means is employed, it is imperative to have an adequate sample size. As a general rule, the larger the population size, the smaller the percentage of the population required to get a representative sample (Gay Airasian, 2003). The researcher would determine the size of the population being studied (if possible) and then determine an adequate sample size (Krejcie Morgan, 1970, p. 608). Ultimately, it is desirable to obtain as many participants as possible and not merely to achieve a m inimum (Gay Airasian, 2003). Lastly, after an adequate sample size for the study has been determined, the researcher should proceed with the administration of the research questionnaire until the desired sample size is obtained. The research questionnaire should be administered in similar conditions, and potential participants should know and understand that they are not obligated in any way to participate and that they will not be penalized for not participating (Suskie, 1996). Also, participants should know how to contact the research should they have questions about the research project, including the ultimate dissemination of the data and the results of the study. The researcher should exhaust all efforts to ensure participants understand what is being asked so they can make a clear judgment regarding their consent to participate in the study. Should any of the potential participants be under the age of 18, the researcher would need to obtain parental permission in order for th em to participate. Lastly, it is imperative that the researcher obtain approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) before the instrument is field-tested and administered to the participants. People who participate in the study should understand that the research project has been approved through the universitys IRB process. References Gay, L. R., Airasian, P. (2003). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and Applications (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Hopkins, K. D. (1998). Educational and psychological measurement and evaluation (8th ed.). Boston: Allyn Bacon. Johnson, J. T. (2007). Instrument development and validation [Class handout]. Department of Educational Leadership Research, The University of Southern Mississippi. Krejcie, R. V., Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30, 607-610.k Krueger, R. A., Casey, M. A. (2009). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, SA: Sage Publications, Inc. Kubiszyn, T., Borich, B. (2007). Educational testing and measurement: Classroom application and practice (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley Sons. Suskie, L. A. (1996). Questionnaire survey research: What works (2nd ed.). Tallahassee, FL: Association for Institutional Research.

What Roles Do Governments Play in the Fight against HIV/AIDS? How Big Are They?

In the fight against HIV/AIDS, there are many points-of-view as to who plays the bigger role. In reality governments and non government organizations play very big and important roles, measuring who plays the biggest role might be difficult to determine.Some governments such as the United States and the French governments have been known to be the biggest financial contributors to the fight against HIV/AIDS, but I will also be researching further to find out which countries have contributed the most in the past couple of years, and what type of contributions they have made such as financial contributions, summits, rallies, among others.HIV/AIDS threatens the development and propensity of countries around the world. It impacts heavily on individual's ability to be economically productive and the expenses incurred in treating HIV/AIDS treatment have been overwhelming.This is especially so in developing countries where pressure on the available health centers has mounted significantly a s more people get admitted for treatment of HIV/AIDS related complications. Life expectancy in most countries has gone down with up to twenty years highly decimating the workforce.The need to promote change in behavior in order to reduce occurrence of the pandemic and the ever increasing need to come to the aid of the victims is therefore inevitable. Approaches meant to fight discrimination and stigma faced by HIV/AIDS patients are also essential.It is almost impossible for private organizations to take these responsibilities mostly due to their limitation in funds. Governments have therefore taken center roles in the fight against HIV/AIDS establishing organizations to fight the pandemic while funding other private organizations to promote the fight against HIV/AIDS. There is therefore a dire need to fight HIV/AIDS and best suited to lead in these campaigns is the government.The governments mostly cannot participate in the rallies, seminars and summits held to promote AIDS awarenes s. It is through funding of the organizations involved in the fight against HIV/AIDS that it usually offers its support.AnalysisAccording to the UNAIDS World AIDS Day report, many countries have taken the initiatives of reviewing their national strategies to address HIV/AIDS with the growing danger of the pandemic. Due to this, new infections have decreased from three million in 2001 and 2.7 million in 2007. The death rate of patients with HIV/AIDS has also reduced significantly as a result of the availability of anti-retroviral treatments provided by most governments.Governments especially members of the United Nations have been actively involved in the fight against HIV/AIDS following the Millennium Development Goals set up during the Millennium Summit. The governments are required to make strategies that address the prevention, accessibility of medical care, prevention of mother to child and enhancement towards research and cure of the disease.Capable governments have also been r equested to make contributions into the global fund which will assist in the fight against HIV/AIDS in developing countries. Developing countries too have realized the impact of HIV/AIDS on their economies and they are coming up with policies to address the pandemic.The challenges however arise where the governments are willing but they cannot afford to fund the required projects. Global organizations such as the UNAIDS, IMF, World Bank and USAID are chipping in to assist the developing countries.Developed countries and especially America have been on the fore front in fighting HIV/AIDS in low and middle income countries especially in Africa where the pandemic has hit hard. These countries that provide funding for the low and middle income countries are known as donor countries.To further demonstrate the efforts that governments are putting in the fight against HIV/AIDS and to justify their roles in the fight, this study makes use of three countries that have made very significant e fforts. The United States has been ranked top in the fight against HIV/AIDS especially due to its involvement internationally.Canada and France have also displayed a similar passion to contribute to the fight against HIV/AIDS through participation in various campaigns and through funding of organizations involved in HIV/AIDS control and prevention.The United States has been very keen on the fight against HIV/AIDS making it a top priority in its national policies. The government funds both private and public organizations in the country to fight against HIV/AIDS. Apart from supporting the fight against HIV/AIDS within the country, U.S also funds international bodies in the fight against HIV.The U.S government through its numerous partnerships with organizations in Sub-Saharan Africa has been actively involved in the fight against HIV/AIDS. US made the largest contribution in Global Fund to fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria with their contribution making up about 33% of the total c ontribution.The U.S has mostly made use of PEPFAR and USAID to make their contribution in the fight against HIV/AIDS both in America and other parts of the world.The government of the United States made a breakthrough initiative when it came up with the United States president's Emergency Relief for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). This organization has played significant roles in the world through funding of projects of improvement of treatment and care of HIV patients.More details about PEPFAR will be described below. US have also been fighting the pandemic through USAID which is the principal government agency that extends help to other countries. At least $7 billion has been spent by USAID to fight HIV/AIDS. USAID is one of the partners of the President's Emergency Plan for Aids Relief in the U.S.

The True Meaning of Essay Samples for Beginners

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Problem Answers on Criminal Procedure and Evidence Law - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1849 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Case study Tags: Act Essay Criminal Law Essay Did you like this example? (i) In the rules of criminal procedure, a suspected person has no obligation to answer any questions because the burden of proof of a criminal case is at the prosecution side. Therefore Herman can exercise his right of silence which is protected under the Article 11(2)(g) of the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance (Cap. 383) and refuse to answer any question raised by any police officer. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Problem Answers on Criminal Procedure and Evidence Law" essay for you Create order However, if it is the truth that Herman was in Macau from 9th to 15th September and thus it can proof that he was not able to commit violence fight in Mongkok on 10th September, I should advise him to tell this fact with good and sensible explanation to the police for his best interest. However, before he telling this fact to the police, the police must caution him before that his answer to the questions of the police must be voluntary. (ii) The purposes of the identification parade (ID) are to test the quality of evidence and avoid mistaken identity. If the witness can identify a suspected person, it will be the most important evidence. Under Article 87 of the Hong Kong Basic Law and in the case R v Ip Lai Sheung [1988], a suspect does not have no obligation to take part in the identification parade arranged by the police and the court shall not make an inference of guilt from the fact that the suspect refused to take part, therefore Herman can object the ID. If Herman is willing to participate the ID, it should be conducted by senior police officer. During the ID, he will be arranged to line up with 7 to 8 persons with similar appearance, build, height, dress to Herman and the witness or victim will choose any position in line. To be fair to the suspect (Herman), no photos should be shown to the witness or victim and the legal representative of Herman can attend and can raise objection on the procedures during the procedure. After the ID, the record will be kept by the police. If the victim can choose one of the lineup and state he or she is the criminal, it will become a positive id. Even Herman can reject the procedure, the police may adopt other methods. For example, direct confrontation, photograph or dock identification, depends on the nature of the case and the decision of the police. Compared with ID and those alternative methods, Herman may need to sign out and those procedures may become much unfair, less protected and less reliable. Also, if it is the fact that he was not in Hong Kong during the time of the violence, there should be low chance for the witness or victim to identify him. Therefore, Herman should be advised to take part in the ID. (iii) If Herman is not given a police bail, I will advise him to apply the court bail under section 9(d) and 9(g) Criminal Procedure Ordinance (Cap. 221)(CPO) at the time of first appearance in magistrate court. The qualified right to the court bail are under Article 5(3) and 28 Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance (BORO). Under section 9(d) CPO, the suspect can admit to bail at any time and the court may object the bail only justified on three special grounds under section 9(g)(1) CPO: the first one is abscond, the second one is the suspect commit an offence whilst on the bail and the third is that the suspect may interfere or the prevent the course of public justice. Under section 9(g)(2) CPO, when the court will mainly consider the likelihood of absconding of the defendant when there is an application of the bail. Also, they will consider the nature and seriousness of offence and probable penalty, the behaviour and conduct of the suspect, the background of the suspects, health, ph ysical and mental condition and age of the suspects, the history of the suspect and the character of the defendant. Herman may apply for a conditional court bail as he has no history of absconding and has a clear record, he works and lives with his family members in Hong Kong that shows he has a strong connection with Hong Kong and he denies the offence and shall challenge the evidence as he has proves that he was not not in Hong Kong during the time of offence. (iv) If Herman pleads not guilty in magistrateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s court, the following trial procedures will be made. The court will start the plea taken from Herman, then the prosecution side will give the opening speech and the prosecution will give evidence of the offence by calling witnesses, producing documents and exhibits and examine in chief. Then Herman will have the cross examination to the evidence and the prosecution will give the re-examination and the prosecution will close the trial. Herman can submit of no case to answer (R v Galbraith [1982]) if Herman thinks that or the prosecution side gives no evidence or weal evidence was discredited during the trial. If the court accept the submission, the case will be thrown out. However, if the court reject the submission, there is a prima facie case to answer for Herman. Herman can either choose to give the evidence or call witnesses or else he can exercise the right of silence. If Herman select to give evidence or call wi tnesses, Herman side will have the examination in chief and the prosecution side will have the cross examination and Herman will then have the re-examination and then case will be closed. Both the prosecution side and the defendant will finally give the closing speech the court will give out the verdict. (b)(i) Under section 3 Juvenile Offenders Ordinance (Cap. 226), a person who is under 10 is incapable of committing an offence and he has no doli incapax (Walters v Lunt [1951]). If the defendant is ager between 10 to 14, the prosecution may rebut the presumption of doli incapax, but has to prove beyond reasonable doubt that the defendant has both actus reus and mens rea and realise what he was doing was seriously wrong. As A is only 9 years old which is not the age range to rebut doli incapax and he is not liable for any offence and can raise infancy as the defence. (b)(ii) Under section 10 Theft Ordinance, robbery is the combination of force or threat of force and t he defendant had used force or puts a person into fear, that person need not be the victim in fear. The actus reus of robbery is that the defendant appropriate property which is belonging to another by use of actual or threatened force immediately before or at time of robbery and the mens rea of robbery is the defendant had intention to use force and dishonestly intended to take property with intention of permanent deprivation. In this case, B and C decided to rob the cashier of the supermarket. B pull out the gun and points at the cashier and steal money from the supermarket. A reasonable person should believe that his action will the cashier in fear at the time of robbery and therefore his act complies with the actus reus of robbery. To determine B is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“dishonestlyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  to take the property, there is a two stage test held in R v Ghosh [1982]. The first stage is that to examine the defendantà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s act according to the standards of a reason able person and the second stage is to examine the defendant aware that his behaviour would be regarded as dishonest by ordinary persons. In this case, Bà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s behaviour is no doubt that not a honest behaviour to a reasonable man and he should aware his behaviour should be dishonest. Furthermore, B shall take the money which stole from the bank for permanent. From the above of that, B also has the mens rea of the robbery. Therefore B should be liable for robbery because he has both the actus reus and mens rea of the offence. Although C did not have the actus reus that to make threat to the cashier and rob the money, under s89 CPO, he act as an secondary parties who assist B, the principal of the crime, to commit robbery and had a joint enterprise that made an agreement with B before the robbery (R v Powell and Daniels [1999]). Also, there is no doubt that C has the mens rea that he intended to aid B to commit robbery. Therefore, C is also liable to the robbery. To conclude, both B and C are liable for robbery. (b)(iii) In this case, it was clear that no joint plan to kill the security guard (X) as B and C ran in opposite direction and therefore only B involved the killing of X. In criminal law, there are two types of offence on unlawful killing which are murder and manslaughter. To commit an unlawful killing, there must be established a causation for the unlawful act of the defendant in law and on the facts by the but for test. In this case, although the death of X was he banged his head against the pavement and , the main cause of the death of X is because B shoot to X by the gun which is an unlawful act in law. Although X was found to have an abnormally thin skull afterward, here are no excuse for B to raise under the Thin Skull Rule therefore there is a legal causation established between the death of X and the act of B, so the killing of X by B is unlawful. To prove B commit murder, besides the defendantà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ac t was an unlawful killing, it must also prove that B has the intention to kill X. In R v Woollin [1998], the court held that the jury can draw the conclusion that the defendant has an intention to kill the victim or not. In this case, X was killed solely because X chase B after the robbery and there are no proves that B had plans or intention to kill X, there are no mens rea for the murder and therefore B was not committed murder. Although B will not be charged with murder, he may be charged with manslaughter. The basis of an involuntary manslaughter is the killing is an unlawful killing, also the killing is by gross negligence from breach of duty of care, by an unlawful and dangerous act or by recklessness. The killing of X by B is an unlawful killing as proved before, thus the key issue is to determine the act of B to X is unlawful and dangerous act which is an objective standard. The elements are that defendant has done an unlawful act intentionally and the act is dangerous to cause death. A sober and reasonable man should know that shoot someone by a gun will make a risk of physical harm and may even cause death, therefore Bà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s act complies with an dangerous act. Since B has commit an unlawful killing with an unlawful and dangerous act but no mens rea to murder, therefore B is liable to manslaughter.